CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.
Background
ESP (English for Specific Purposes)
is the activity of teaching learning of specific skills and language needed by
particular learners for a particular purpose.
This purpose must be a professional purpose, means the purpose is in the form
of a set of skills that learners currently need or will need in their professional careers. It can be
include business skills, such as
English for Job-hunting or
Presentations. ESP tends to
focus on the learners' ability to function
effectively at work, rather than purely their level of English. The aim of ESP courses is to equip
the learners with a certain English proficiency level for a situation where the language is going to be used, i.e., target
needs.
Broadly defined, needs analysis (NA) is a procedure to collect information
about learners' needs (Richards, 2001). In the last few years, needs
analysis researches have tended to an increased interest in investigating the
most effective ways of improving the ability of workers in using ESP in the workplace. Need analysis has a vital role in the process of designing and carrying out any language
course, whether it be English for Specific Purposes (ESP) or general English course.
B. PROBLEM
FORMULATION
1.
What is need
analysis?
2.
What is
section of need analysis?
3.
How is Strategy Analysis or Learning Needs
Analysis on learning?
4.
What is Techniques
used in needs analysis?
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL
A. Definition of Needs Analysis
Needs analysis is a Systematic process to
acquire an accurate thorough picture of the weaknesses and strengths of a
school group that can be used in response to the academic and course needs of
all students for improving student achievement and meeting challenging
academic and course standards. Process that collects and examines information
about achievement issues and then utilizes that data to determine priority
goals, to develop a plan, and to allocate funds and resources (Eva M Kubinski, M.S. Comprehensive Regional
Assistance Center – Region VI South Dakota Title I Schoolwide Conference
September 27, 1999).
There are some others definition of needs
Analysis, such as:
“All effective training begins with needs analysis. The training needs survey
measures what skills employees have, what they need, and how to deliver the
right training at the right time.” (American Society of Training and
Development)
“Needs analysis is performed to
determine what training will successfully address any skill deficits.” (Cornell,
Technology Training Services)
“Needs Analysis is a process used anytime someone carefully asks the
question ‘How can I find out what is really happening’ (or needed; at the root
of the problem; missing; etc.)?” (Cornell, Needs Analysis Tips and Techniques)
Need Analysis is the process of evaluating and
identifying needs in a group or other defined population of people. The needs
identification is a process of describing problems of a target population and
relevant solutions to these problems.
Need analysis focuses on the future, or what
should be done, rather than on what was done as is the most program evaluations
focus on (ICYF Evaluation Concept Sheet Spring 2000, The
University of Arizona Prepared by Allison L. Titcomb, Ph.D).
B.
Target
Situation Analysis (TSA)
Needs analysis was firmly established in the mid-1970s (West,
1998). In the earlier periods needs analysis was mainly concerned with
linguistic and register analysis, and as Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998)
suggest, needs were seen as discrete language items of grammar and vocabulary.
With the publication of Munby’s Communicative Syllabus Design (1978) needs
analysis moved towards placing the learner’s purposes in the central position
within the framework of needs analysis. Consequently, the notion of target
needs became paramount and research proved that function and situation were
also fundamental. The term Target Situation Analysis (TSA) was, in fact,
first used by Chambers in his 1980 article in which he tried to clarify the
confusion of terminology. For Chambers TSA is “communication in the target
situation” In his work Munby (1978) introduced Communicative Needs Processor
(CNP.
In Munby’s CNP, the target needs and target level performance are established
by investigating the target situation, and his overall model clearly
establishes the place of needs analysis as central to ESP, indeed the necessary
starting point in materials or course design (West, 1998). In the CNP, account
is taken of “the variables that affect communication needs by organizing them
as parameters in a dynamic relationship to each other”.
Munby’s overall model is made up of the following elements:
1.
Participants: information about the identity and language of the learners:
age, sex, nationality, present command of target language, other languages
known and extent of command;
2.
Communication
Needs Processor: investigates the particular communication
needs according to sociocultural and stylistic variables which interact to
determine a profile of such needs;
3.
Profile
of Needs: is established through the processing of data in the CNP; In the
Meaning Processor “parts of the socioculturally determined profile of
communication needs are converted into semantic subcategories of a
predominantly pragmatic kind, and marked with attitudinal tone”.
4.
The
Language Skills Selector: identifies “the specific
language skills that are required to realize the events or activities that have
been identified in the CNP”
5.
The
Linguistic Encoder: considers “the dimension of contextual
appropriacy”, one the encoding stage has been reached;
6.
The
Communicative Competence Specification:
indicates the target communicative competence of the participant and is the translated
profile of needs.
From the above-mentioned elements of the Munby model, the predominant
one or at least the one that has been referred to by other researchers of needs
analysis is the Communication Needs Processor (CNP) which is the basis of
Munby’s approach to needs analysis and establishes the profile of needs through
the processing of eight parameters the processing of which gives us a detailed
description of
particular communication needs (Munby, The parameters specified by
Munby (1987) are:
Ø Purposive domain: this category establishes
the type of ESP, and then the purpose which the target language will be used
for at the end of the course.
Ø Setting: the physical setting
specifying the spatial and temporal aspects of the situation where English will
be used, and the psychological setting specifying the different environment in
which English will be used.
Ø Interaction: identifies the learner’s
interlocutors and predicts relationship between them.
Ø Instrumentality: specifies the medium,
i.e., whether the language to be used is written, spoken, or both; mode, i.e., whether
the language to be used is in the form of monologue, dialogue or any other; and
channel of communication, i.e., whether it is face to face, radio, or any other.
Ø Dialect: dialects learners will
have to understand or produce in terms of their spatial, temporal, or social
aspect.
Ø Communicative
event: states what the participants will have to do productively or
receptively.
Ø Communicative key: the manner in which the
participants will have to do the activities comprising an event, e.g. politely
or impolitely.
Ø Target level: level of linguistic
proficiency at the end of the ESP course which might be different for different
skills.
The aim of Munby’s
CNP is to find as thoroughly as possible the linguistic form a prospective ESP
learner is likely to use in various situations in his target working
environment. The outcome of the processing data by means of Munby’s model is,
as Hutchinson and Waters (1987) say, what the learner needs to know in order to
function effectively in the target situation. Most subsequent target needs
analysis research was based on Munby’s model for the reason that it offers comprehensive
data banks and target performance (Robinson, 1991).
Many researchers in
the field of target situation needs analysis followed Munby’s CNP. Hutchinson
and Waters (1987) provide a comprehensive target situation analysis framework,
which consists of a list of questions the analyst should find answers to. For
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) the analysis of target situation needs is “in
essence a matter of asking questions about the target situation and the
attitudes towards that situation of various participants in the learning
process”
Nevertheless, most of
these questions relate to the Munbian model. These relations can be found
summarized below:
1. Why is language
needed?
·
for study;
·
for work;
·
for training;
·
for a
combination of these;
·
for some other
purposes, e.g. status, examination,promotion
|
cf.
Munbian
purposive
domain
|
2. How will
the language be used?
·
Medium:
speaking, writing, reading, etc.;
·
Channel: e.g.
telephone, face to face;
·
Types of text
or discourse: e.g. academic text, lectures, catalogues, etc.
|
cf.
Munbian
instrumentality
|
3. What will
the content areas be?
·
Subjects: e.g.
medicine, biology, commerce, shipping, etc.;
·
Level:
technician, craftsman, postgraduate, etc.
|
cf.
Munbian
Communicative
event
|
4. Where will
the language be used?
·
Physical
setting: e.g. office, lecture theater, hotel, workshop, library; Human
context: alone, meetings, demonstrations, on telephone;
·
Linguistic
context: e.g. in own country, abroad.
|
cf.
Munbian
Setting
(physical and
psychological)
|
5. When will
the language be used?
·
Concurrently
with the ESP course or subsequently;
·
Frequently,
seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks.
|
Like any other model/approach, however, Munby’s
model is not without its critics. Munby provided detailed lists of
microfunctions in his CNP. What he did not include was how to prioritize them
or any of the affective factors which today are recognized as important
(Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998).
West mentions
the shortcomings of the Munby’s model in terms of four headings:
1.
Complexity:
Munby’s attempt to be systematic and comprehensive inevitably made his
instrument inflexible, complex, and time-consuming.
2.
Learner-centeredness: Munby
claims that his CNP is learnercentered. The starting point may be the learner
but the model collects data about the learner rather than from the
learner.
3.
Constraints:
Munby’s idea is that constraints should be considered after the needs analysis procedure,
while many researchers feel that these practical constraints should be considered
at the start of the needs analysis process.
4.
Language: Munby
fails to provide a procedure for converting the learner profile into a language
syllabus.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) also
point out that it is too timeconsuming to write a target profile for each
student based on Munby’s model. This model only considers one viewpoint, i.e.
that of the analyst, but neglects others (those of the learners,
user-institutions, etc.). Meanwhile, it does not take into account of the
learning needs nor it makes a distinction between necessities, wants, and lacks.
C. Present Situation Analysis (PSA)
Present situation analysis may be
posited as a complement to target situation analysis (Robinson, 1991; Jordan,
1997). If target situation analysis tries to establish what the learners are
expected to be like at the end of the language course, present situation
analysis attempts to identify what they are like at the beginning of it. As
Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 125) state "a PSA estimates strengths and
weaknesses in language, skills, learning experiences." If the destination
point to which the students need to get is to be established, first the
starting point has to be defined, and this is provided by means of PSA.
The term PSA (Present Situation
Analysis) was first proposed by Richterich and Chancerel (1980). In this
approach the sources of information are the students themselves, the teaching
establishment, and the user-institution, e.g. place of work (Jordan, 1997). The
PSA can be carried out by means of established placement tests. However, the background
information, e.g. years of learning English, level of education, etc. about
learners can provide us with enough information about their present abilities
which can thus be predicted to some extent .
Needs analysis may be seen as a
combination of TSA and PSA. As noted, within the realm of ESP, one cannot rely
either on TSA or PSA as a reliable indicator of what is needed to enhance
learning and reaching the desired goals. Consequently, other approaches to
needs analysis have been proposed, such as Pedagogic Needs Analysis.
D. Pedagogic Needs Analysis
The term “pedagogic needs analysis” was
proposed by West (1998) as an umbrella term to describe the following three
elements of needs analysis. He states the fact that shortcomings of target
needs analysis should be compensated for by collecting data about the learner
and the learning environment. The term ‘pedagogic needs analysis’ covers deficiency
analysis, strategy analysis or learning needs analysis, and means
analysis.
E. Deficiency Analysis
What Hutchinson and Waters (1987) define
as lacks can be matched with deficiency analysis. Also, according to
Allwright (1982, quoted in West, 1994), the approaches to needs analysis that
have been developed to consider learners’ present needs or wants may be called
analysis of learners’ deficiencies or lacks. From what has
already been said, it is obvious that deficiency analysis is the route to cover
from point A (present situation) to point B (target situation), always keeping
the learning needs in mind. Therefore, deficiency analysis can form the basis of
the language syllabus (Jordan, 1997) because it should provide data about both
the gap between present and target extralinguistic knowledge, mastery of
general English, language skills, and learning strategies.
F. Components of
Needs Analyses
Many needs assessment tests are available for use in
different employment contexts. Sources that can help you determine which needs
analysis is appropriate for your situation are described below.
Ø Context
Analysis.
The important questions being answered by this analysis are who decide that a
given training should be conducted, why a training program is seen as the
recommended solution to a business problem, what the history of the
organization has been with regard to employee training and other management
interventions.
Ø User
Analysis.
Analysis dealing with potential participants and instructors involved in the
process. The important questions being answered by this analysis are who will
receive the training and their level of existing knowledge on the subject, as
well as what is their learning style, and who will conduct the training?
Ø Work
analysis.
Analysis of the tasks being performed. This is an analysis of the job and the
requirements for performing the work. Also known as a task analysis or job
analysis, this analysis seeks to specify the main duties and skill level
required. This helps ensure that the training that is developed will include
relevant links to the content of the job.
Ø Content
Analysis.
Analysis of documents, laws, procedures used in the job. This analysis answers
questions about what knowledge or information is used on this job; and the
sources of the information ( does it come from manuals, documents, or
regulations.) It is important that the content of the training does not conflict or
contradict job requirements. An experienced worker can assist (as a
subject matter expert) in determining the appropriate content.
Ø Training
Suitability Analysis. Analysis of whether a training is the
desired solution. Training is one of several solutions to employment problems.
However, it may not always be the best solution. It is important to determine
if training will be effective in its usage.
Ø Cost-Benefit
Analysis.
Analysis of the return on investment (ROI) of training. Effective training is
expected to result in a return of value to the organization that is greater
than the initial investment to produce or administer the training.
G. Strategy Analysis or Learning Needs Analysis
As it is apparent from the name, this
type of needs analysis has to do with the strategies that learners employ in
order to learn another language. This tries to establish how the learners wish
to learn rather than what they need to learn (West, 1998). All the
above-mentioned approaches to needs analysis, TSA, PSA, and to some extent
deficiency analysis, have not been concerned with the learners’ views of learning.
Allwright who was a pioneer in the
field of strategy analysis (West, 1994) started from the students’
perceptions of their needs in their own terms (Jordan, 1997). It is Allwright
who makes a distinction between needs (the skills which a student sees as
being relevant to himself or herself), wants (those needs on which
students put a high priority in the available, limited time), and lacks (the
difference between the student’s present competence and the desired
competence). His ideas were adopted later by Hutchinson and Waters (1987), who
advocate a learning-centered approach in which learners’ learning needs play a
vital role. If the analyst, by means of target situation analysis, tries to
find out what learners do with language (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987)learning
needs analysis will tell us "what the learner needs to do in order to
learn"
Hutchinson and Waters’ (1987) definition
of wants (perceived or subjective needs of learners) corresponds to
learning needs. Similar to the process used for target needs analysis, they
suggest a framework for analyzing learning needs which consists of several
questions, each divided into more detailed questions. The framework proposed by
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) for analysis of learning needs is the following:
1.
Why are the learners taking the course?
·
compulsory
or optional;
·
apparent
need or not;
·
Are
status, money, promotion involved?
·
What
do learners think they will achieve?
·
What
is their attitude towards the ESP course? Do they want to improve their English
or do they resent the time they have to spend on it?
2.
How do the learners learn?
·
What
is their learning background?
·
What
is their concept of teaching and learning?
·
What
methodology will appeal to them?
·
What
sort of techniques bore/alienate them?
3.
What
sources are available?
·
number
and professional competence of teachers;
·
attitude
of teachers to ESP;
·
teachers'
knowledge of and attitude to subject content;
·
materials;
·
opportunities
for out-of-class activities.
4.
Who are the learners?
·
age/nationality;
·
What
do they know already about English?
·
What
subject knowledge do they have?
·
What
are their interests?
·
What
is their socio-cultural background?
·
What
teaching styles are they used to?
·
What
is their attitude to English or to the cultures of the English speaking world?
Finally, as Allwright (1982, quoted in
West, 1994) says the investigation of learners’ preferred learning styles and
strategies gives us a picture of the learners’ conception of learning.
H. Techniques used
in needs analysis
Several basic Needs Assessment techniques include:
1.
Survey
Surveys
are usually in the form of a questionnaire. A comprehensive survey of the
information needs of your institution would seek information on the types of
information users (physician, nurse, administrator, etc.), the types of information
sought, the frequency of the need (daily, monthly, annually), and where the
information is currently found (hospital library, other library, personal library,
consultation with colleague, not found, et c.).
Other
surveys may be on a more narrow aspect of service. Recent surveys at Dartmouth
have assessed
a. satisfaction
with the current awareness service,
b. the
desirability of a change in Sunday hours,
c. and
satisfaction with the Learning Resources Center. Satisfaction with and the need
for additional educational workshops are regularly assessed after each
workshop.
2.
Interviews
Interviews
may be formal or informal. Formally, you may visit department chairs,
administrators, and/or managers annually to ask if the library, for example, is
currently meeting their needs and how things could be better. Informal
interviews are often done as you greet people entering the library or check
materials out, and ask them if they have found what was needed. If you take it
a step further, making a note of the conversation and any action taken in response.
This way, you've already initiated done a needs assessment.
3.
Analysis of
statistics, records
Libraries
have always been faithful record keepers, gathering statistics on every aspect
of their operations. Analyze these records regularly to see what they tell you
about the needs of your institution. You probably already analyze interlibrary
loan requests to determine titles to which you should subscribe
4.
Suggestion box
A
suggestion box is a very basic needs assessment tool. Complaints -whether
received through a suggestion box or not - can fall into this category of needs
assessment tool.
5.
Meetings,
Reports, Newsletters
Attending
meetings, reading newsletter, and getting on as many distribution lists as
possible are all useful ways to find out about the level of efficacy of new
programs and services, and the new direction is heading to. Any of the
aforementioned tools may be used in the continuous quality improvement process
to uncover areas in need of improvement and to measure progress toward
improvement. With all of the above needs assessment tools, it is important to
document how you measure need for knowledge-based information and how you
respond to the measured needs.
CHAPTER
III
CLOSURE
Conclusion
An ongoing needs analysis should be a prerequisite
for any program/course design in order to achieve effective instructional
outcomes. Besides this, it can help educators and administrators to gain
awareness of the ‘context variable’ (Chaudron, 1990) and program designers - to
provide appropriate instructional input to foster effective learning. Needs of administrators
/educators and students generally vary across time, instructional contexts, the
requirement of an ongoing needs assessment for any educational institution
becomes crucial in order to promote effective teaching and learning environments.
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